Effect of Reinforcement Essay Example for Free

Effect of Reinforcement Essay Psychology as we know it didn’t suddenly appear on the intellectual scene. It is impossible to say just when it began, or who was responsible for it. Instead, we can only point to a number of current that takes us from philosophy and the natural sciences into something recognizably psychological. To give you the simple concept of this field, psychology is the study of human and animal behavior. As time ages, many psychological theories have evolved. Burhus Frederic Skinner, as one of the contributors has emphasized a theory on learning regarding to individual’s behavior. Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning. Skinners theory of operant conditioning was based on the work of Thorndike (1905). Edward Thorndike studied learning in animals using a puzzle box to propose the theory known as the Law of Effect Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened). Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a â€Å"Skinner Box† which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box. B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. A. Background of the study Reinforcement, a term used to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Reinforcement, noted, defined by the effect that it has on behavior it increases or strengthens the behavior. It might involve responses right after the reinforced present a kind of motivation. In this study, we could see the behavior, and the responses made by the rat in the presentation of reinforcement. The errors of the rat in the progress of the experiment shall be observed and noted and shown to answer the queries of the researchers at the same time address curiosity. B. Theoretical Basis: Physiological psychology research has identified separate but interactive neural pathways mediating reward and aversion (i.e., functioning as positive and negative reinforcement systems, respectively). Direct activation of brain reward mechanisms through electrical and chemical stimulation provides a tool for elucidating these neural systems. During the past four decades, considerable knowledge has been gained regarding the anatomical and neurochemical basis of these pathways. This brief presentation addresses only brain mechanisms involved in positive reinforcement because they are closely identified with pleasure in humans and because they underlie the primary process governing much of normal behavior. Deprivation and Positive Reinforces: Experts who say educators can use positive reinforces (positive consequences) to control students behavior usually dont tell the educators they must first deprive students of whatever they plan to use as reinforce. As far back as 1938, Skinner described how deprivation is necessary when a person wants to use reinforces to control another organism. That was when he wrote, in the preface to his book, The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis (N.Y.: Appleton-Century-Crofts): The simplest contingencies involve at least three terms stimulus, response, and reinforcement and at least one other variable (the deprivation associated with the reinforcement) is implied. I think it is interesting that, even relatively early in his work, Skinner was waffling on his acknowledgment of the central role deprivation plays in operant conditioning. Notice how he says there are at least three terms, and at least one other variable (the deprivation associated with the reinforcement) is implied. Make no mistake about it, deprivation is not merely implied; it is the essential action that allows behaviorists to create the illusion that reinforcement controls behavior, whether the behavior occurs in the experimental laboratory, the classroom, or the slaughterhouse. Watsons S-R behavioristic psychology described behavior as reflexive responses to stimuli. Skinners radical behaviorism described behavior as responses in the presence of stimuli that were associated with reinforcers, where the reinforcers worked because the organism was deprived. The formula in Skinners psychology is stimulus-response-reinforcement (+deprivation): S-R-R (+D). (Sometimes the formula is written, Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence, or A-B-C. I would add +Deprivation, making the formula A-B-C (+D).) Without deprivation, or denial of access to something an organism wants or needs, there is no reinforcement. If a rat eats pellets of food until it stops of its own accord, then the behaviorist cannot use food to reinforce the rat’s actions. If a child has all of the attention he or she needs or wants, then a teacher cannot use attention to reinforce the childs behavior. No deprivation, no control of behavior. No control of behavior, no discipline program The following passage, from one of the Bibles of laboratory research methods for radical behaviorists, describes how completely they relied on deprivation to create the illusion that reinforcers control behavior. In 1957, C. B. Ferster and B. F. Skinner wrote that: Birds are sometimes matched on deprivation level as measured by the rate of responding under a variable-interval schedule. Each bird is run for a session of fixed length each day C. Related Literature What is Reinforcement? Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by controlling the consequences of the behavior. In reinforcement theory a combination of rewards and/or punishments is used to reinforce desired behavior or extinguish unwanted behavior. Any behavior that elicits a consequence is called operant behavior, because the individual operates on his or her environment. Reinforcement theory concentrates on the relationship between the operant behavior and the associated consequences, and is sometimes referred to as operant conditioning. REINFORCEMENT, PUNISHMENT, AND EXTINCTION The most important principle of reinforcement theory is, of course, reinforcement. Generally speaking, there are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement results when the occurrence of a valued behavioral consequence has the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. The specific behavioral consequence is called a reinforced. An example of positive reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts extra effort to meet a sales quota (behavior) and is then rewarded with a bonus (positive reinforce). The administration of the positive reinforce should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future. Negative reinforcement results when an undesirable behavioral consequence is withheld, with the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but they are not the same. Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors; negative reinforcement attempts to increase desired behavior. Thus, both positive and negative reinforcement have the effect of increasing the probability that a particular behavior will be learned and repeated. An example of negative reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts effort to increase sales in his or her sales territory (behavior), which is followed by a decision not to reassign the salesperson to an undesirable sales route (negative reinforce). The administration of the negative reinforce should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future. As mentioned above, punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors being exhibited. Punishment is the administration of an undesirable behavioral consequence in order to reduce the occurrence of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is one of the more commonly used reinforcement-theory strategies, but many learning experts suggest that it should be used only if positive and negative reinforcement cannot be used or have previously failed, because of the potentially negative side effects of punishment. An example of punishment might be demoting an employee who does not meet performance goals or suspending an employee without pay for violating work rules. Extinction is similar to punishment in that its purpose is to reduce unwanted behavior. The process of extinction begins when a valued behavioral consequence is withheld in order to decrease the probability that a learned behavior will continue. Over time, this is likely to result in the ceasing of that behavior. Extinction may alternately serve to reduce a wanted behavior, such as when a positive reinforce is no longer offered when a desirable behavior occurs. For example, if an employee is continually praised for the promptness in which he completes his work for several months, but receives no praise in subsequent months for such behavior, his desirable behaviors may diminish. Thus, to avoid unwanted extinction, managers may have to continue to offer positive behavioral consequences. What is motivation? Definition of Motivation Motivation refers to â€Å"the reasons underlying behavior† (Guay et al., 2010, p. 712). Paraphrasing Gredler, Broussard and Garrison (2004) broadly define motivation as â€Å"the attribute that moves us to do or not to do something† (p. 106). Intrinsic motivation is motivation that is animated by personal enjoyment, interest, or pleasure. As Deci et al. (1999) observe, â€Å"Intrinsic motivation energizes and sustains activities through the spontaneous satisfactions inherent in effective volitional action. It is manifest in behaviors such as play, exploration, and challenge seeking that people often do for external rewards† (p. 658). Researchers often contrast intrinsic motivation with extrinsic motivation, which is motivation governed by reinforcement contingencies. Traditionally, educators consider intrinsic motivation to be more desirable and to result in better learning outcomes than extrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 1999). Although the use of differential reinforcement has been recommended in previous investigations and in early intervention curriculum manuals, few studies have evaluated the best method for providing differential reinforcement to maximize independent responding. This paper reviews previous research on the effectiveness of differential reinforcement as treatment and describes important areas of future research. Keywords: acquisition, differential reinforcement, early intervention, reinforcement quality, reinforcement schedules Differential reinforcement is an operant procedure used to increase the occurrence of desirable behavior while simultaneously decreasing undesirable behavior. The use of differential reinforcement is recommended in early intervention (EI) programs because children in EI often do not acquire skills in the absence of motivational procedures (Karsten Carr, 2009; Leaf McEachin, 1999; Lovaas, 2003). In addition, prompting procedures may be necessary initially, because children who require EI may not have extensive skill repertoires that could be exposed to differential reinforcement. Thus, one challenge in EI programming is to identify differential reinforcement procedures that minimize prompt dependence and promote independent responding as the ultimate goal. However, only a few studies have examined the effects of differential reinforcement on independent and prompted responding in EI programs. Therefore, the purposes of this review are (a) to provide a summary of previous research related to differential reinforcement during acquisition-based procedures in EI and (b) to suggest areas of future research. Schedules of reinforcement Studies have examined variations in differential reinforcement schedules for prompted and independent responding to identify schedules that increase the efficiency of learning (i.e., quickly increase independent responding). Olenick and Pear (1980) implemented differential reinforcement during tact training using 5-s constant time delay (hereafter referred to as â€Å"prompt delay†) with 3 children with severe intellectual disabilities. The evaluation included four conditions. In two of the conditions, reinforcement was provided on a fixed-ratio (FR) 6 or 8 schedule. Reinforcement was provided on an FR 1 schedule for correct independent responses and on an FR 6 or FR 8 schedule for prompted responses in the third condition. In the fourth condition, reinforcement was provided on an FR 1 schedule for prompted responses and on an FR 6 or 8 schedules for correct independent responses. Results indicated that all participants had the highest accuracy and number of independent responses on the FR 1 schedule for independent responses. These findings suggest that schedules of reinforcement that favor independent responding may produce more rapid skill acquisition. However, the authors implemented a fairly thin schedule of reinforcement in the first two conditions (i.e., FR 6 or 8) and did not conduct any sessions at a 0-s prompt delay, both of which are inconsistent with typical procedures used in EI (Walker, 2008). Thus, it is not clear that the results of this study are representative of acquisition in clinical settings, in which rich schedules of reinforcement and a 0-s prompt delay are used most typically in initial stages of learning. What is Latent learning? Latent learning is a theory in psychology that describes learning without a reward. An organism learns a new concept simply from observation and without any obvious reinforcement. The organism may not be consciously aware of its new skill until it suddenly expresses that skill when it becomes useful at a later date. For instance, a person can casually observe other people using chopsticks to eat and discover much later that he or she can use them correctly without ever being taught. A classic experiment in psychology illustrates how latent learning works. Edward C. Tolman and C.H. Honzik famously placed three groups of rats inside a maze, where the rats were allowed to wander around. One rat group always received a food reward when reaching the end of the maze, while the second group found no food at the end. The third group found no food at the end of the maze for ten days but discovered food on the 11th day. The first group of rats learned to reach the end of the maze quickly to reach the food. The second group continued to wonder around the maze. The third group acted similarly to the second group until food was placed at the end of the maze on the last day. One day after food was placed; the third group had already learned to reach the end of the maze as quickly as the first group.

Enigmatic Quirigua :: essays research papers

One of the last lowland Mayan cities to collapse, existing well into the 9th century, Quirigua, lies today in the still grasses of the Motagua Basin. This 1,200 years old Mayan city is the focus of the article. The ruins of Quirigua are found amidst a banana plantation established at the turn of the century by the United Fruit Company. Some of the executives of the United Fruit Co. were interested in archaeology and decided to keep the central plaza from being plowed over. The surrounding smaller buildings are now part of the banana plantation. Nine monolithic sandstone monuments, called stelae, with dated texts of hieroglyphs, defining the beginnings and the end of the Classic Period of Maya Civilization, from about 300 to 900 AD, is what makes Quirigua an attraction to archeologists. The stelae remain the principal written chronicles of this lost civilization, as well as the key to their highly advanced calendric system. Other Mayan centers erected stelae much earlier and in greater profusion, but the stelae at Quirigua are unsurpassed in their style and technique. Like most Mayan monuments, they were erected to commemorate the passage of time, significant historic events, and also served as â€Å"billboards advertising the kings‘ standings with the Maya godsâ€Å" (as the author of the article points out). During its brief period of erecting stelae, from the early 8th century until 810 AD, Quirigua was one of only two cities to regularly erect monuments marking the end of five-year periods (the quarter-katun, or hotun). The enormously heavy material needed for the construction of the stelae had to be transported from large distances and there is no evidence to show the usage of wheels or animals. These huge monolithic sculptures, weighing up to 65 tons, were artfully carved without the benefit of metal tools. Stone chisels, driven by other stones or wooden mallets, were the only tools available; and yet the Mayan sculptors achieved such a high level of artistry; the carvings, apparently, were done before the stones were lifted up to their vertical positions. This fine collection of gigantic stone sculptures is arranged in a regular pattern on the main plaza at Quirigua, the Great Plaza. The city is believed to have served as an important way station between Copan and Tikal. The greatest leader of Quirigua, during whose reign seven of the nine stelae were erected, was Cauac Sky (or Kawak Sky) founder of the Sky Dynasty, who ruled the city for sixty years. Enigmatic Quirigua :: essays research papers One of the last lowland Mayan cities to collapse, existing well into the 9th century, Quirigua, lies today in the still grasses of the Motagua Basin. This 1,200 years old Mayan city is the focus of the article. The ruins of Quirigua are found amidst a banana plantation established at the turn of the century by the United Fruit Company. Some of the executives of the United Fruit Co. were interested in archaeology and decided to keep the central plaza from being plowed over. The surrounding smaller buildings are now part of the banana plantation. Nine monolithic sandstone monuments, called stelae, with dated texts of hieroglyphs, defining the beginnings and the end of the Classic Period of Maya Civilization, from about 300 to 900 AD, is what makes Quirigua an attraction to archeologists. The stelae remain the principal written chronicles of this lost civilization, as well as the key to their highly advanced calendric system. Other Mayan centers erected stelae much earlier and in greater profusion, but the stelae at Quirigua are unsurpassed in their style and technique. Like most Mayan monuments, they were erected to commemorate the passage of time, significant historic events, and also served as â€Å"billboards advertising the kings‘ standings with the Maya godsâ€Å" (as the author of the article points out). During its brief period of erecting stelae, from the early 8th century until 810 AD, Quirigua was one of only two cities to regularly erect monuments marking the end of five-year periods (the quarter-katun, or hotun). The enormously heavy material needed for the construction of the stelae had to be transported from large distances and there is no evidence to show the usage of wheels or animals. These huge monolithic sculptures, weighing up to 65 tons, were artfully carved without the benefit of metal tools. Stone chisels, driven by other stones or wooden mallets, were the only tools available; and yet the Mayan sculptors achieved such a high level of artistry; the carvings, apparently, were done before the stones were lifted up to their vertical positions. This fine collection of gigantic stone sculptures is arranged in a regular pattern on the main plaza at Quirigua, the Great Plaza. The city is believed to have served as an important way station between Copan and Tikal. The greatest leader of Quirigua, during whose reign seven of the nine stelae were erected, was Cauac Sky (or Kawak Sky) founder of the Sky Dynasty, who ruled the city for sixty years.

A Huey P Newton Story Essay

‘A Huey P Newton Story’, the movie based on the story of Huey P Newton who was a freedom fighter and the co-founder of the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense in Oakland in 1960s. He was the Minister of Defense in the party and he made a Ten Point Plan based on the demand for basic civil rights and made it public in 1966. The movie is based on hyper-energetic, magnetic, faltering and chain-smoking Newton and Robert Guenveur Smith has played the role of Newton in this movie. Smith is the only person on the stage dressed in black and most of the time sitting on a single wooden chair. He is seen reading poetry, asserting his philosophies, worrying about the potential and complaining about the way everything turned out. The movie was shot in front of the live audience and was completed in single night improvisation. There are some archival footage and some sound effects to support the plot of the story. Like when Newton writes the Ten Point Plan you can hear sound of a typewriter. The movie is directed by Spike Lee and is quite disturbing and provocative at times. It also capture’s Newton’s â€Å"inner mind† and jazz saxophonist Branford Marsails provides olo music for the project. Newton was an extraordinary man and lot of energy and resources was needed to portray him on stage. There are some points in the movie where Smith pushes away the microphone and remains silent and it seems he is recollecting his energies. As Newton was a chain smoker Smith also had to smoke a lot while performing on stage. Smith quotes the saying of Newton, â€Å"Any time a black man in America stands up against the slave mentality, he’s going to scare a lot of white people and some black people, too. † Although the movie depends quite a lot on the clips and the soundtracks it is one man show and that too in front of live audience which in itself is a very difficult task. The chain smoking cigarettes are referred as props for Newton’s anger and similes. Smith is seen shaking and trembling with anxiety and he had to deliver speeches in the same hypocritical manner. The music, clothing and art all had to resemble and have an image of Newton’s surroundings. However Smith resembles Newton somewhat physically and has done justice to the character up to a large extent. The movie shows a man in prison with only one chair to sit on and the stage setting gives an impression of a room in prison. The whole movie is one-man show where the actor talks about everything and the whole story is depicted. In the beginning Newton is shown here proud with military pronouncement like a warrior and then shifting towards poetry and reading poetic recollection of a brother and then recollecting memories of his father who had shifted to California and had to work three jobs in order to support his seven children. Here, every aspect of Newton’s life is epicted because he was not only a freedom fighter but also a human being with all normal feelings and similarly concerned with his family and its welfare. He also recalls his own life and how he turned from burglar to a law student but there is wit and regret in his tone. After joining the revolutionary career he faces lot of problems and he has only one aim that is to get basic rights to his community. Smith also reveals a part of Newton’s character where he is hurt because he cannot dance and he uses philosophical questions to get girls’ phone numbers. He is shown fascinated with â€Å"rap† and seems to be connected with the current generation style too. Then coming back to philosophy of success and failure he says that a leader most of the time disappoints his followers and leaves nothing behind except contempt. He chooses riffs of songs and tells the audience about the fortune of his people. At the end of the performance, the audience is taken to a scene where a young man on the mountainside plays guitar and makes the sun come up. Newton is aware of the fact that he did not make the sun come up for himself. Lee’s direction and Smith’s performance make the audience realize that a human spirit can rise while he waits and watches his own songs. ‘A Huey P Newton Story’ is a powerful plodding film based on one-man stage show by Roger Guenveur Smith and directed by Spike Lee and was premiered on June 18 on Black Starz. Smith is a veteran actor and has very warmly and effectively portrayed Newton with all his talent and imaginative hands. He is dressed in a simple way with black shirt, black pant and shoes and is seen mostly sitting on a single chair kept on the stage. The set resembles the interior of Newton’s Oakland high-rise apartment where he resided in the last few years of his life. He is seen ruminating his life and bouncing his right leg and chain smoking. The presentation of Smith is so noteworthy that he looks as if on the stage at one moment and immediately on the other he seems to be in prison. In this movie Smith uses humor and wit and portrays Newton as a normal guy who has desires like a normal human being too. Newton is the youngest among seven children and hates being teased as â€Å"Baby Huey†, becomes a Black Panther and then he is elated to the fact where he argues for the right to housing, jobs etc. for people. It is felt that Newton is portrayed with mostly positive aspects of his character along with the humanity that is painful and complex. No emphasis is given on Newton who was alleged as a drug user. However the bare stage seems to be monotonous in spite of Smith’s extraordinary performance and so the director uses historic footage and photographs to give a break from the monotonous stage and a single man’s dialogues. 1960 saw quite a lot of political nd social change and also fight for these and so this gives a perfect ground for veteran artists to show their talent. The stories of this time have its contemporary significance and Smith here has tried to take advantage of the same and joined hands with Lee for the purpose. It is for sure that the way Smith and Lee tried to depict the story is completely different from the usual trend of movie making. Newton otherwise would have been the â€Å"icon† for the purpose for which he lived his short life but here he is shown with all the qualities and desires of a normal human being.

Educational Autobiography Essay - 1436 Words

Miguel Huerta Period 1 September 8, 2010 Educational Autobiography A lot of people think education is just something you get in school, but in reality education comes from different places and people not just school and teachers. For example, way before I started school I was already being educated by my parents, they taught me how to eat, behave, use the bathroom, talk, and a lot of other things that help out in life. I started my educational career in John F. Kennedy Elementary. I don’t really remember my years there because I only went there for Kindergarten and 1st grade. After that, I went to Sepulveda Elementary. That was a learning experience because I had to basically be on my own for a couple of days since I was the new†¦show more content†¦Sadly to say, I didn’t really have a teacher in middle school that made a big impact in my life but I matured on my own and got my stuff together and put my work first and girls second. When I graduated 8th grade I was so excited because I had accomplished something special but I knew that wasn’t the end but in fact a beginning to an even bigger obstacle, high school. I still remember on the day of graduation my mom went alone because my dad was working and after I told her that this wasn’t the last time she would see me walking down for a diploma because in couple more years I would be doing it again. That was a big deal because she never graduated high school neither did my dad because my mom had me and they had to care for me. Then finally I made it to high school. This was the place where everything I learned up to now would help me. My 9th grade year was really good I met new friends that I still talk to, got good grades but other than that it was a normal year. When I went to 10th grade I was in AOF (Academy of Finance) or Global. At first I was a little optimistic about being in it because I didn’t really know a lot of people but I stayed because I was a little curious about the whole business stuff going on in there. It was a good decision to stay because I really enjoy all the business related work and I am looking forward to even having some sort of a business career later on in life. The teacher that really made an impact on me is the teacher for whom IShow MoreRelatedEssay about Educational Technology Autobiography1552 Words   |  7 PagesEducational Technology Autobiography My experience with educational technology from K-12 to post-secondary education: The very first form of educational technology that I encountered was the use of the overhead in the first grade. In the third grade I was moved to a gifted and talented Math class; therefore, allowing my fellow classmates and myself access to a computer lab that contained seven apple computers. 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